USA and Puerto Rico Essay Example for Free

USA and Puerto Rico Essay It is a matter of fact that USA is one of the most powerful countries situated in North America, whereas Puerto Rico is only the territory of the USA, although with a status of Commonwealth. Puerto Rico is situated in the northeastern Caribbean. It is necessary to underline that the nature of political debates between USA and Puerto Rico is ongoing subject not only within two states, but also in United Nations. (Morris 1995) The USA is a constitutional republic having the oldest constitution in the world. USA government is representative democracy and operates through the congressional system specified by Constitution. The government is thus represented by three branches: legislative (Congress is made up Senate and House of Representatives), executive (the President and the Cabinet), judiciary (the Supreme Court). (Scott 1983) Puerto Rico has approximately the similar government, however, differences are evident. Puerto Rico’s government is Republican system made up of three branches as well as the USA’: legislative (Senate and House of Representatives), executive (governor), judiciary (court). The difference: executive branch in USA is president, whereas in Puerto Rico is governor. (Morris 1995) USA economic system is capitalist mixed economy presented by corporations, private firms and individuals performing macroeconomic decisions. (Scott 1983) Puerto Rico’s economy can be described as agricultural, whereas in USA the agriculture plays a minor role. USA largest economic sector is services employing three quarters of labor force. The country is rich in natural resources such as precious metals, petroleum and coal. (Scott 1983) Puerto Rico doesn’t have so strong economic potential and its main contributor is crops, especially sugar. However, the economic conditions in the country have been improved due to investments in technology, petrochemicals and pharmaceuticals. (Morris 1995) In conclusion it is necessary to say that USA compared with Puerto Rico has stronger economic and political potential and more significant influence on global scale. (Morris 1995) References Morris, Nancy. (1995). Puerto Rico: Culture, Politics, and Identity. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. Scott, John Anthony. (1983). The Ballad of America: The History of the United States in Song and Story. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.

Effects of Income Inequality on Quality of Healthcare Essays -- The In

Positive rights are rights that everyone is entitled to including: the right to a public education, access to public roads, and the right to health care. There are no guarantees when it comes to life, but having health insurance makes a huge difference with preventing, diagnosing, and treating diseases. Of course having insurance itself is a great resource to ensure medical care and containing costs, but not all insurance programs are created equal. Insurance programs have caveats, exclusions, varying co-payments, and access to certain doctors and hospitals, which creates an ethical dilemma. Receiving the best care is subjective in most cases, but with money you can buy almost anything, including the best care. Although those living in poverty are given access to healthcare, that does not mean they receive the best or equal care as those who are wealthy. Living in a capitalist society, the richest Americans enjoy larger homes, nicer cars, better education and even health care. Even if we lived in a capitalist society where everyone had access to the same basic healthcare program, the rich would still be able to afford better care. The wealthy are able to pay more in co-payments, prescription costs, and the ability to go outside of the healthcare system in this country to seek help. When you have the disposable resources then the sky is the limit, where the poor have very limited options. They will be confined to their healthcare coverage program and do not have the luxury of seeking additional assistance. â€Å"Poor patients often receive less quality care in the hospital, have more barriers to recovery, and experience higher morbidity and mortality than do patients with higher incomes† (Dracup). The United States is ... ...ndards and practices are more uniform based on circumstance and not based on loopholes, exceptions or lack of insurance. Everyone should be given the same preventive care and be able to receive the same treatment options regardless of location, income, or age. Competition in the marketplace can be good, but there are many complexities with healthcare and many people can slip through the cracks and others can be shortchanged. Works Cited C. Wayne Sells and Robert Wm. Blum, "Morbidity and Mortality among US Adolescents: An Overview of Data and Trends," AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC HEALTH Vol. 86, No. 4 (April, 1996), pgs. 513-519. R. Wilkinson and K. Pickett, The Spirit Level: Why Greater Equality Makes Societies Stronger, Bloomsbury Press, NY, 2009, in particular pages 49- 173. Income Inequalities , Health and the Garrison State by Christopher Schaefer

Main functions of GO4IT Sports Essay

* The company has a warehouse which supplies goods to shops as well as to sports teams by mail order * The company sells a wide range of sports goods in it shops this includes clothing, footwear and equipment for sports. * The shops also sell exercise equipment; however these large items are not kept in stock but are ordered from the supplier as required. * The company supplies match strips, to order, in team colours for different sports * The company supplies other team merchandise with team logo; these are supplied through a mail order service. * Sell sports trophies which can be engraved if required. * The company also supplies sports clothing in bulk to schools Different types of customers for GO4IT Sports The company’s customers include: * Schools * Sports teams for all sports such as football, rugby, tennis, athletics and golf * General customers * The shops which are supplied by the company’s warehouse Describe the functions of each section within the shops and Head Office, paying particular attention to Administration in shops and Human Resources in Head Office Functions of each section within the shops Administration * Each shop has a Branch Manager who has overall responsibility for the running of the shop. * The assistant manager and head of administration section report directly the branch manager. * The staff keeps account of the money taken through the EPOS terminals by comparing money received with EPOS records. * The administration staff produce and send correspondence from the shop as well as receiving correspondence. * Organise for a trophy to be engraved by contacting the local engraver. * Emailing weekly orders for goods to the warehouse * Producing confirmation purchase orders for goods and services * Checking invoices against goods received and work done and passing these to Head Office for payment Clothing sales * The clothing sales section has a clothing sales manager who the clothing sales staff and footwear sales staff report to. * Clothing Sales staff assist customers in choosing appropriate clothing and provide advice for those who wish to purchase clothing * The footwear sales staffs assist customers and provide advice for those who wish to purchase footwear. Equipment sales * The Equipment sales section has an Equipment sales manager. The general sales staff and specialist sales staff report to the Equipment sales manager. * The General sales staff operate the EPOS terminals, they scan the barcodes of every items during purchase and handing of receipts. * The Specialist sales staffs provide assistance and specialist advice and information for customers purchasing more advanced equipment. Functions within the Head Office * The Managing Director of GO4IT sports is responsible for all aspects of the day to day running of the business. The two directors which are: sales marketing director and the finance and administration director report to the managing director Sales and Marketing * The sales and marketing director is responsible for the mail order operation as well as advertising and promoting the business * A buying manager is responsible for locating the goods to be sold and negotiating contracts for their supply. * The buying manager ensures the right volume and type of goods are supplied at the right time to maximise profit. Finance and Administration * The Finance and Administration director is responsible for all other functions within the Head Office. This includes administration, Human Resources(HR) and finance * The Administration assistant, HR executive, chief accountant and ICT support executive report to the Finance and Administration director Finance * Keep records of all financial transactions on the head office server, including the income from sales for each shop and mail order, payments for goods purchased, payments for engraving contractors and staff wages. * Records are used to produce monthly and annual accounts for shareholders and Inland Revenue. * Generate VAT (value added tax) returns once a quarter for customs and excise. * Arrange for the amount due to be paid. Human Resource (HR) The functions of the HR Department are; * Staff recruitment and training * Place advertisements for staff * Send out and receive application forms * Organise interviews and provide contracts for successful applicants * Keeping standard personnel records on a database along with records of training courses attended by members of staff and any qualifications they obtain. * Determine what further training each staff member requires and how best to provide it * Book the member of staff on an external training course/ if many members require training organise for a trainer to deliver the course ‘in house’. Task1 Identify different types of supplier to the shops and warehouse and describe relationships between these suppliers and the departments/individuals within the company Warehouse Supplier What is supplied Who orders it How and when it is ordered Wholesaler Clothing and footwear Warehouse manager Order is made by fax once a month but can place special order by telephone if stocks of a particular item falls faster then expected Specialist manufacturers Sports equipment Buying Manager The buying manager negotiates contracts at the beginning of each season either by telephone or visit, for the supply of a certain quantity. Shops Supplier What is supplied Who orders it How and when it is ordered Local Engraver (external Contractor) Engraved Trophy Administration Assistant Administration Assistant telephones local engraver. The engraver collects the trophy from the shop with a confirmation purchase order detailing work the required. Warehouse Clothing and footwear Administration staff Branch manager hands an annotated stock list to Administration staff who e-mails warehouse Task 2 An analysis of the processes for recording sales in a shop and for mail order sales in Head Office. Shop Information Required * Product bar code or numerical code if bar code unreadable * Quantity bought * If sale is to be paid by credit card * If paying by cash the Amount to be tendered From where this is obtained and how it is captured * product code by barcode scanner * numerical code keyed in using a keypad * quantity keyed in by till operator * credit card yes/no keyed in The processing and calculations required * look up item in computer * display item name and price on screen * multiply price by quantity * if on sale, reduce total price by 50% * display total on screen * if credit card = yes, generate credit card receipt for signature The form and content of any output * on-screen / display message * paper till receipt * paper credit card receipt * Contains prices. items, sales items highlighted with words â€Å"ON SALE†, store address, time of sale, till operator name Mail Order in Head Office Information Required * Team details e.g. team name, name and address of contact person, the sport, the colour(s) and design of shirt/vest, position of logo e.g. VTL(vest top left), picture of team logo and team number * Product colour * Product quantity required * Product code * Colour code/ X is entered If a non standard colour * Size and number of colours in logo * Amount of deposit paid From where this is obtained and how it is captured * Team details from completed order form from a mail order brochure entered onto data screen on computer using input devices such as keyboard and mouse * Product colour from completed order form from a mail order brochure entered onto data screen on computer using input devices such as keyboard and mouse * Product quantity required from completed order form from a mail order brochure entered onto data screen on computer using input devices such as keyboard and mouse * Product code from completed order form from a mail order brochure entered onto data screen on computer using input devices such as keyboard and mouse * Colour code/ X is entered If a non standard colour from completed order form from a mail order brochure entered onto data screen on computer using input devices such as keyboard and mouse * Size and number of colours in logo from completed order form from a mail order brochure entered onto data screen on computer using input devices such as keyboard and mouse * Amount of deposit paid from completed order form from a mail order brochure entered onto data screen on computer using input devices such as keyboard and mouse * Team logo captured using a scanner and stand alone computer The processing and calculations required * look up item in computer * display item name and price on screen * Calculate price of embroidery by multiplying number of logos by price * multiply price by quantity * Calculate sub total if less than à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½100, à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½5 is added for postage and packaging * Calculate and add VAT to give total price The form and content of any output * on-screen / display message * Invoice * Contains prices. items, store address, store phone and fax number, date of sale, invoice number, team contact person details, sub total, VAT, total, Less deposit, total due. Task 3 Outlining the current ICT systems used by GO4IT Sports, in particular, Finance within Head Office and Administration within a Shop Administration within a shop * Each shop has a number of Electronic Point of Sales (EPOS) terminals with barcode readers and card readers. * Telephone connection to banking system * Small Local Area Network (LAN) of three computers * Laser Printer * Branch managers computer acts as a server * Dial up modem Software used includes * Word processing * Spreadsheet applications Finance within Head Office * Number of workstations * Local are network (LAN) * Single Server * Fast laser printer * Slower laser printer * Bar code reader * ISND line Software used includes * Word processing * Spreadsheet applications * Database management software * Stock control software Task 3 Analysing the purpose and operation of the main ICT systems used for sales in each shop and the ICT systems using within the warehouse Shops * Each shop has an EPOS terminal with barcode readers and card readers. Stock data is held on dedicated server connected to the EPOS terminals. * There is also a telephone connection to the banking system for authorisation of the card payments. * The barcode reader is used to scan the barcode of each item and the product code it contains is used to look the product description and price from stock database * When items are scanned total price is calculated. This includes the VAT, the system calculates the net value of the items, and all of this is printed on the receipt. * If customer pays by cash, member of staff enters the amount tendered; the EPOS terminal calculates the change due. This is printed on receipt and given to customer * If customer wishes to pay by credit or debit card the member of staff swipes the card through the card reader. The card details are checked by the banking system and if the transaction is approved an authorisation code is transmitted to the EPOS terminal. * The authorisation Code and card details and amount debited are printed on receipt which is handed to customer to sign with card and items purchased. Warehouse * Stand alone computer * Scanner * Computer controlled embroidery machine * Workstation * Laser printer * Stock control software has separate screens for incoming and outgoing goods. * All goods have a product code which is contained in a barcode. When goods arrive in the warehouse the barcode of each product is read and the quantity entered via the keyboard. * This data is used to update stock database. * For every order picked up the staff use the barcode reader to input the product code and the keyboard to enter the quantity removed from stock. These items are deducted from stock database. Task 3 Recommending and explaining improvements/ extensions to shop systems Methods for improving stock control and the re-ordering of stock, as well as integration of systems within GO4IT sports. * A dedicated server could be used instead of the branch manager’s computer acting as a server, if the branch manager’s computer crashes then that would leave the other computers stranded without a printer and no access to the internet. * ISDN connection would improve communication giving workers a faster connection to send e-mails internally. Dial up connections are not as reliable and are slower so information being sent will be limited due to connection speed of dial up. * There should be a centralised database put into place. This is where all the company’s data is held in one place and the computers in the company are networked. This central database can be used by anyone within the company provided they have been given access through a password. This will be a very resourceful way of storing company data, as it will prevent the problem of data duplication. * Sales based ordering where automatic re-ordering takes place of goods from the warehouse using the sales information from the checkouts. * To increase the efficiency of communication between the supplier and GO4IT sports I would recommend the introduction of EDI (electronic data interchange); the system is similar to email and allows users to exchange invoices, delivery notes, orders and receipts over the telephone network. Security * Log in pages requiring a specific unique user name requiring a private password to track who logs on and off to restrict users Possible problems for suggested improvements * One of the problems that may arise is the finance to cover the costs for the installation of the systems in place. * Also addition of new feature will mean that staff are not familiar with it and training for staff will be required. Benefits of using new technology EDI Advantages * It is much faster, as work does not have to be printed, it is on the screen * The EDI system is easy to use and work can be sent off very easily * Information can be sent to other companies, in less then a few minutes instead of days. * The company can be linked up with their bank, suppliers and customers. * Will minimize the amount of paperwork and business can be transacted much faster and more efficiently then is possible through the normal post. Disadvantages * For EDI, computers are relied on, therefore if the systems go down; it will have a huge of affect on the company. * It is very costly for the installation of EDI * The organization has to research into which system would be best for the company Ecommerce Advantages * Majority of the work of GO4IT sports can be done just through the internet, making it much easier. * This would means a lot less people will have to be employed this will result in huge savings for the company as most transaction will be electronic. * Currently GO4IT sports uses a lot of time to get into contact with suppliers by using the telephone, which can be tedious due to the telephone being engaged; by using e-commerce orders could be automatically electronically sent straight to the suppliers. * Team contacts currently have to post the payment to the company, which is very time consuming and not very secure and with using ecommerce an electronic funds transfer could be made. * Promotion of the company can be improved as it is all online presentation of online advertising can be enhanced. * This will also enable the company to advertise their products online and also allow customers to purchase the products directly from the site using their debit/credit card. They can place the desired items in the virtual shopping trolley. The company can be fully based on the internet, making it easier for the company and also for customers. Disadvantages * A close relationship between the retailer and supplier is required in order for the system to work * Returning products online will prove to be difficult. The customer may be put off when these areas are taken into account. As the customer will question how to send the goods back to their source? Who pays for the return postage? Will the refund be paid? Will I be left with nothing? How long will it take? Compared to offline experience of returning goods to a shop and it is frustrating for the customer. * Privacy, security, payment, identity, contract. Many issues arise – privacy of information, security of that information and payment details, whether or not payment details (eg credit card details) will be misused, identity theft, contract, and, whether we have one or not, what laws and legal jurisdiction apply. MIS(management information systems) For the Buying Manager I would recommend the following improvements: * MIS could produce an analysis of patterns of sales in the company * MIS would be able to identify peak production needs * What if type questions could be applied to different patterns of sales The features of the MIS system that could be used by the branch manager are: * Production costs can be based on raw material costs * MIS could be used to carry out analysis automatically * Results could be displayed in graphs which are easy to understand * Monthly graphs could be produced of price comparison with competitor’s goods or services resulting from regular market research. * Planning, directing, controlling and forecasting decisions. Both managers would benefit from the following points of the MIS system: * Warnings could be set if production costs exceed budget. * Warnings could be set if stocks fall below fixed level.

Throughput Accounting Free Essay Example, 1750 words

And, the understanding and subsequent elevation of the system’s constraints will enhance the performance of the system. Within the above mentioned context, throughput accounting has become an important development in the modern conventions of accounting allowing management accountants to comprehend the significance and contribution of the constrained resources to aggregate profitability. The concept of throughput accounting does not largely focus on the efficiencies and performance based on the efficiencies instead it takes into account the different types of constraints which can be in the shape of time constraints and policy constraints. Steps involved in throughput accounting Goldratt (1990) contends that the working principles of throughput accounting or theory of constraints extend a focus to a continuous improvement process and this principle is comprised of five focusing steps as elaborated below: (1) Identify the system’s constraint(s): Constraints may be relating to physical (e. g. machines, people, materials, demand level) or managerial (Rahman, 1998, p. 338). Generally, organizations have limited physical constraints but face numerous managerial constraints in the form of procedures, policies, methods and rules. In this regard, Goldratt (1993) devised a technique called a Current Reality Tree for identifying policy constraints. We will write a custom essay sample on Throughput Accounting or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/page Moreover, non-constraint resources comprise of productive capacity (capacity supporting the constraint throughput) and the idle capacity (capacity to safeguard against system disruptions and capacity not currently required) (Lockamy and Cox, 1994).

Essay on Persuasive Speech - 822 Words

Ashley Buckner Persuasive Speech COMM210D 4/20/12 Why should you smile? I. Imagine: you wake up in the morning. You get ready and grab a cup of coffee. Then, you walk out the door, seeing many faces as you make your way to work, and walk up to your building. When you walk inside expecting to be greeted by many more positive faces, you see none, and so you walk over and sit down at your desk. While thinking back on your morning to work you were realizing that there was not a moment of joy. There was no laughter, no happiness†¦ nothing. A single coworker or employee did not greet you happily, and a single person walking to work did not smile you at. The world just felt cold and bitter, and now you’re in a terribly bad mood for†¦show more content†¦vi. It helps us to not look so tired and overwhelmed. 3. It can wear down the stress before it works you up. f. Smiling reduces your blood pressure and boosts your immune system. vii. Those are two very important things to keep in mind while keeping a healthy living style. viii. â€Å"Whe n you smile,† stated by Mark Stibich, â€Å" there is a measurable reduction in your blood pressure.† ix. Smiling relaxes you, and when you are relaxed your immune systems is boosted. IV. Smiling can help you in many, many other ways as well. g. Whether it is with your lips or with your teeth, smiling is how to make for a positive day ahead. x. When you go to an interview you smile to show appreciation. xi. When you are at work you smile to show courtesy. xii. While it takes 43 muscles to frown, it only takes 17 to smile. h. â€Å"Smiling is universal.† –quoted by Michael Lee. xiii. There is no barrier on smiling. 4. All races, males, females, any age, and any type of people have the ability to crack a smile whenever they feel the need/want to. xiv. When you smile it breaks the ice of any situation. i. â€Å"Smiling has a lot of benefits, not only to you but also to those around you.† – Another quote from Michael Lee’s only blog about smiling improvements to life. V. Smiling makes any day a better day. According to this class, 100% of you agreed thatShow MoreRelatedPersuasive Speech : Automatic Speech Recognition1610 Words   |  7 PagesAutomatic speech recognition is a tool that allows computers to translate spoken language into written text. This technology can assist users in interpreting and using audio information for applications such as transcribing interviews, human-computer interactions, and many more. Speech recognition is an application the Ministry of Justice has expressed great interest in. They wish to automate the conversion of voice recordings of inmate phone conversations to text, which can then be analyzed forRead MorePersuasive Essay On Hate Speech1612 Words   |  7 Pages In the name of free speech, hate speech should not be tolerated. Hate speech has devastating effects on the people and communities it is targeted at. Left unchecked hate speech can lead to harmful and violent effects. O ver the past few years, the effects of hate speech used on women, homosexuals, ethnic groups and religious minorities have become more and more apparent. Hate speech can be very divisive in many of the situations it is used, depending on who interprets the expression can vary howRead MorePersuasive Essay On Freedom Of Speech1083 Words   |  5 PagesFreedom of Speech When the rules and doctrines of our country were first being assembled, the right minded individuals with the power of legislature took a page from John Locke and affirmed that Americans are endowed with a list of natural rights upon birth. The first and arguably most important notch on that list if the frequently used and abused First Amendment, our freedom of Speech. The First Amendment solemnly declares that Congress is incapable of passing any legislation which inhibits a citizen’sRead MoreSpeech : The Persuasive Speech761 Words   |  4 PagesDuring the persuasive speech I was really nervous. I know that this is the third presentation that I had to do, but I really had a hard time talking in front of everyone. That was very weird for me because I thought that I would already be used to speaking in front of the class since I’m always talking in class and participating. In my opinion, I feel that I did more wrong than right during this presentation. I know for a fa ct that I kept repeating myself. The reason for that was because I was reallyRead MorePersuasive Speech895 Words   |  4 PagesTo be Persuasive we must be Believable An American literary theorist and novelist, Kenneth Burke, once said, â€Å"Wherever there is persuasion, there is rhetoric, and wherever there is rhetoric, there is meaning.† (Burke) Barack Obama, Martin Luther King Jr. and Fannie Lou Hamer all delivered powerful persuasive speeches that will go down in history. The use of these motivational individuals’ language and persuasion played a pivotal role within the civil rights movement, the movement that achieved theRead MorePersuasive Speech1641 Words   |  7 Pagesto Public Speaking 14 November 2010 Persuasive Speech Reduce Landfill Waste by Reduce, Reuse and Recycling and the financial benefits I. Introduction A. Attention Getter: Over half of the waste that ends up in the landfill does not belong there because it could have been recycled or reused. B. Credibility Statement: Not only do I religiously practice reducing, reusing, and recycling, but I have done a great deal of research for this speech, also research for a recycling projectRead MorePersuasive Speech1777 Words   |  8 PagesPersuasive speech outline purpose: To persuade my audience to donate blood through the American Red Cross. Introduction: 1. Did you know that blood donated to the American Red Cross saves XXX lives per year? 2. People should give blood because it is easy and though there might be a little pain involved it is worth it because it saves so many lives and you get great snacks. Body: I. Giving blood is easy a. It only takes about an hour b. You just lay back and let the nurses do the work c. ItRead MorePersuasive Speech971 Words   |  4 PagesStephanie Ethington SPE 103-02 Speech Outline Draft 04/20/12 Persuasive Speech Outline Topic: Blood Donation Purpose: To persuade my peers of the need for blood donations. Thesis: The need for blood donors is crucial it could save a life of someone you know or your own. Introduction: A. Imagine you or someone you know needed blood to save their life. For example, if you were born with a heart defect and required a transfusion for a chance at life. 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Should Smoking Be Banned - 1457 Words

Ban the Cancer Sticks Lung cancer has increased within the past decade; one of the biggest reasons is that more and more people smoke now than they have in the past. Smoking causes damage not only in the lungs, but also in the body, lips, or inside the mouth. Even though smoking does harm your body there are some good things that come from smoking. Like it can lower the risk of obesity, and knee replacement surgery. There are different types of lung cancer one for smoking and the other, nonsmoking. Although people are smoking, not only are adults getting lung cancer, but kids and teens are getting it too. Lung cancer is the deadliest of all cancers and yet it is also the most preventable. While non smokers can get it, the most affected population of lung cancer could prevent the disease by not smoking, this is why smoking should be ban. One reason why lung cancer has rapidly increased is because of the use of cigarettes. The air after World War I had a effect on the environment, and increased lung cancer. Forty-five to seventy-five years old is usually the age a person could get lung cancer. The countries with a history of tobacco smoking between eighty to ninety percent of all causes are caused by smoking. Ages eighteen to twenty-four attempted to quit smoking cigarette and succeeded in 2010. Not only those who smoke can get lung cancer or have some type of disease, people who don’t smoke has the same chance or higher getting lung cancer or a disease. ThisShow MoreRelatedShould Smoking Be Banned?895 Words   |  4 PagesPeople smoke all over the world. Smoking has been around for many decades. Controlling the usage of smoking depends on the smoker. Believe it or not, the government has a huge part on this. In some countries, smoking in public or enclosed areas is banned. In the United States, the owner of any public place has the right to put a â€Å"No Smoking Area† sign. Unfortunately even with these regulations, the smoker doesn’t realize how smoking can be harmful to them and their surroundings; people are simplyRead MoreShould Smoking Be Banned?845 Words   |  4 PagesThe smoking population in London stands around 1.2 million and with such a significant percentage of this city with the habit, it is unsurprising the ban has caused such wide con troversy. Without hesitation, I add my voice to the chorus of non-smokers who think this ban goes too far. However, I am not saying that smoking is in any way good as I am extremely aware of the gruesome health risks and unattractive photos of black lungs and lopsided livers that litter the media. I just ask of you Britain;Read MoreShould Smoking Be Banned?1672 Words   |  7 Pagesthis is not a choice. This creates the problem of second-hand smoke, which is more harmful than people think. 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I believe that smoking should beRead MoreThe Smoking Should Be Banned860 Words   |  4 Pages On August 31, 2008, Maine made the law for no smoking in cars with children under 18. Warnings were given out until 2009 of September 1st; but starting September 2nd of 2009, fines of fifty dollars would be given out if caug ht by police. The making of this aw, is to limit teenagers with their license to stop smoking in cars. Smoking should be banned in motor vehicles in all states if person is/are over 16 of age. For teens, smoking is a distraction just like talking on the phone or texting whileRead MoreShould Smoking Be Banned?1326 Words   |  6 Pagesbreak. Even though people are well equipped with the knowledge of how unhealthy smoking can be and what can it causes to their hearts and lungs, they still choose to smoke. Nowadays smoking becomes a trend like a social media, and especially teenagers, are participating in this as well. 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Cigarettes contain nicotine, tar, and carbon monoxide, as well as formaldehyde, ammonia, hydrogen cyanide, arsenic, and DDT. The main ingredient in cigar ettes is tobacco. The nicotine in cigarettes is very addictiveRead MoreShould Cigarette Smoking Be Banned?1365 Words   |  6 PagesShould Cigarette Smoking be banned? The United States Surgeon General’s report stated that cigarette smoking is the major single cause of cancer death in the United States. This statement is so true today. Smoking a cigarette is an acquired behavior and that makes it the most preventable cause of death in our society. Cigarettes contain nicotine, tar, and carbon monoxide, as well as formaldehyde, ammonia, hydrogen cyanide, arsenic, and DDT. The main ingredient in cigarettes is tobacco. The nicotine

Prevent & Reduce the Effect of NSI on Nurse-Samples for Students

Question: Discuss about the Occupational Health Management- Needle Stick Injuries (NSI) in Nurses in healthcare industry. Answer: Introduction According to WHO, an occupational health hazard is a harmful process, material, human action or situation that may lead to physical or mental injury, death or harm to other aspects of health at an individuals workplace. Nurses have a significant contribution in service provision in the healthcare system. However, they experience numerous occupational hazards while performing their duty. These hazards could be biological, chemical, physical or psychosocial in nature. In this assignment, the hazard of needle stick injury is reviewed. The review is prepared to evaluate that how needle stick injuries are manifested while healthcare delivery and the way they harm the nurses. The relevant legislations, codes and guideline pertaining to occupational health of Australian judicial system are also reviewed. The standard practice that should be followed by the healthcare organisation to eliminate or minimise the risk of development of needle stick injury are analysed. Lastly, the review is conc luded with the key findings from the main discussion. Literature Review In the 2006 World Health Report Working Together for Health on human resources, it was informed that there is a shortage of healthcare professional globally and the shortage has reached the level of crisis in 57 countries. It was also established that in several countries, one of the main causes of health staff attrition was unsafe working conditions. They reported the occupational hazards like injuries, occupational infection like HIV, etc. to be a demotivating cause for healthcare workforce. WHO global burden of disease from sharps injuries among health workers revealed that 37% of the cases of hepatitis B among health professionals was due to occupational exposure to the causal microorganism (WHO). The NSI is the one of the most common occupational accidents (Riddell, Kennedy, Tong, 2015) and hollow-bore needles and disposable syringes are the chief sources of injury (Cho, Lee, Choi, Park, Yoo, Aiken, 2013). Needle stick injuries are one of the leading causes of exposure to blood borne pathogens for nurses. It is reported that in 1999, there were 30 needle stick injury events per 100 beds in US hospitals (OSHA - Safer Needle Devices, 2012). Needle stick injuries lead to mild to severe infection and infection contributes to a significant number of morbidity and mortality cases associated with nursing and therapeutic procedures. According to a study conducted by Orji, Faasubaa, Onwudiegwu, Dare and Ogunniyi, needle stick injuries were the second most prominent occupational hazard followed only by work related stress in the obstetrics and gynaecology unit (Orji, Faasubaa, Onwudiegwu, Dare, Ogunniyi, 2009) According to Negin Masoudi Alavi, needle stick injuries result in development of communicable diseases and increases the likelihood to exposure to microorganisms present in infected blood which can cause fatal disease like HIV, HBV, etc. among the nurses which can impact their health severely (Willburn, 2004). The numbers of occurrences of needle-stick injuries in ayear in the healthcare facilities are estimated to be between 600000 and 80000 (Alavi, 2014). According to Perry, Jagger and Parker the leading causes of exposure are injections accounting for about 21% of incidents, suturing responsible for 17% incidents, and extracting blood owing to 16% of total cases (Perry, Jagger, Parker, 2003). According to Wilburn and Eijkeman, there are certain determinants of needle-stick injuries like over usage of syringes and other avoidable sharp equipment (WILBURN EIJKEMANS, 2004). Other factor responsible for NSI incidents are lack of throwaway syringes, harmless needle apparatuses, and disposal containers for sharp devices. Shortage of nursing staff, post-use recapping of needles, hand to hand handling of equipment in the OT, unawareness regarding hazards (Trim, 2004)and no training are some of the other risk factors of the NSI for nurses in the healthcare setting (Pruss-Ustun, Rapiti, Hutin, 2003). Nurses also don not have adequate information about the legislation, policies and procedures that manage the occupational health and safety in an organisation. According to Clarke, Sloane and Aiken, those nurses who were working in departments with shortage of staff and poor organizational climates faced two times more chances of reporting needle stick inuries and near misses as compared to the nurses working in adequately staffed unit with sound organizational climate. Therefore, it can be concluded that staffing and organizational climate also impacts the chances of nurses suffering from needle stick injuries. They suggested that eradicating the issues of understaffing, lack of support from administration, and bad morale can decline the rates of NSI (Clarke, Sloane, Aiken, 2002). According to Ghosh, nurses when get exposed to infected blood, blood products or other potential infectious materials, then they face the likelihood of developing blood borne infection. The nurses in different departments like emergency, laboratory, housekeeping, etc. are at the risk of occupational hazard. The extent of the risk is evaluated by the total infected patients in the setting, the incidence of exposure, duration of exposure to infected substance but there is always a chance that infection can occur with a single NSI too (Ghosh, 2013). Legislations, codes and guidelines According to Australian Government, the Work Health and Safety Act 2011 offers an outline to safeguard the health, safety and welfare of all the staff at work, in this case that is nurses at the healthcare establishments and everyone who may get impacted by the work. The Act provides a definition for the primary health and safety duty on a worker performing a business or undertaking (PCBU). Also there is a code of Practice, which offers practical guidelines for employees who have duties under the WHS Act. It also provides regulations to tackle health risks and safety. Apart from that, large firms should develop specific health and safety policies and procedures to affirm their duties and responsibilities for the employees. The policies must involve appropriate employees responsibilities as well(Tatelbaum, 2001). Standard practices to prevent and reduce the effect of NSI on nurses in healthcare settings The best practice to deal with the risks and harms of occupational hazard is to remove the hazard. The injections should be substituted by changing route of administration of medicines like medications can be given via mouth, nose or local application. All the unnecessary sharp instruments and needles must be removed from the practice (Sossai., et al., 2016). Other options that can be used as an alternative for syringes and sharps are jet injectors, towel clips and needleless intravenous systems. The healthcare organisations must ensure to practice engineering controls like retractable needles, or needles that blunt immediately after use (Harris Handelman, 2011). Equal focus should be put on administrative controls. The healthcare organisations should ensure that the required policies and guidelines are formulated and practiced. They should also ensure that adequate hazard training is given to the nurses in order to minimise exposure to the hazard (Nsubuga Jaakkola, 2005). The training should be reviewed at regular intervals (KEOREKILE, 2015). The healthcare organisations can create a dedicated committee, the needlestick injury prevention group to eliminate this occupational hazard from their settings. The healthcare employers must also allocate resources for the purpose of safety of healthcare workers especially nurses who are prone to this hazard. An exposure control strategy should be devised by the hazard professionals. Likewise work practice controls should also be placed by the healthcare professional. Syringes that can be recapped should not be used, sharps containers should be held at eye level within an arms reach, the sharps containers should be checked frequently as stated in the policy guidelines. The sharps containers should be emptied before they are completely full. A safe means to handle and pass the sharps should be established prior to initiating any procedure. The Personal protective equipment (PPE), that is the hurdles and enablers of a hazard should be specifically taken care of by the nurses. The examples involve eye goggles, face shields, gloves, masks, and gowns (Ndejjo, Musinguzi, Yu, Ssempebwa, 2015). There are certain steps that can be taken to avoid infections from exposure of nurses to infected blood. Apart from that certain measures after the exposure via NSI should also be taken like prophylaxis with antiretroviral drugs can lower the risk of HIV infection by 80% (Owie A panga, 2016) Conclusion It is important to understand that nurses form an essential element of the healthcare system. The global shortage of nurses proves their significance as well as the aversion associated with this profession. One of the biggest off-putting reasons for nursing profession is the immense number of occupational hazards that are linked with it like musculoskeletal pain, stress, fatigue, NSI and subsequent infections. The data related to NSI are alarming and indicates that practical standard policies should be formulated, reviewed and maintained at every level beginning from governmental to organisational. A thorough risk assessment should be done along with the regular hazard audit. There are certain engineering, administrative and work place controls that should be followed by the healthcare facilities as well as the nurses. Bibliography Alavi, N. M. (2014). Occupational Hazards in Nursing. Nurs Midwifery Stud, 3(3). Cho, Lee, Choi, Park, Yoo, Aiken. (2013). Factors associated with needlestick and sharp injuries among hospital nurses: a cross-sectional questionnaire survey. Int J Nurs Stud., 50(8), 1025-32. Clarke, Sloane, Aiken. (2002). Effects of Hospital Staffing and Organizational Climate on Needlestick Injuries to Nurses. Am J Public Health, 92(7), 1115-1119. Ghosh, T. (2013). Occupational Health and Hazards among Health Care Workers. International Journal of Occupational Safety and Health, 3(1), 1-4. Harris, J., Handelman, E. (2011). Needlestick Safety and Prevention Law. KEOREKILE, O. (2015). OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS ENCOUNTERED BY NURSES AT LETSHOLATHEBE II MEMORIAL HOSPITAL IN MAUN, BOTSWANA. UNIVERSITY OF LIMPOPO, SOUTH AFRICA. Ndejjo, R., Musinguzi, G., Yu, X. J., Ssempebwa, J. (2015). Occupational Health Hazards among Healthcare Workers in Kampala, Uganda. Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 3. Nsubuga, F. M., Jaakkola, M. S. (2005). Needle stick injuries among nurses in sub?Saharan Africa. TMIH. Orji, Faasubaa, Onwudiegwu, Dare, Ogunniyi. (2009). Occupational health hazards among health care workers in an obstetrics and gynaecology unit of a Nigerian teaching hospital. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 22(1), 75-78. OSHA - Safer Needle Devices. (2012). Needlestick Injuries 2012 Update Course Number 3461. Retrieved April 13, 2018, from https://www.medceu.com/index/index.php?page=get_coursecourseID=3461nocheck Owie, H. O., Apanga, P. A. (2016). Occupational Health Hazards Prevailing among Healthcare Workers in Developing Countries. Journal of AIDS Clinical Research, 7. Perry, Jagger, Parker. (2003). Nurses and needlesticks, then and now. Nursing, 33(4), 22. Pruss-Ustun, Rapiti, Hutin. (2003). Sharps injuries: global burden of disease from sharps injuries to health-care workers. Geneva: World Health Organization. Riddell, Kennedy, Tong. (2015). Management of sharps injuries in the healthcare setting. BMJ. Sossai., Guardo, M. D., Foscoli, R., Pezzi, R., Polimeni, A., Ruzza, L., et al. (2016). Efficacy of safety catheter devices in the prevention of occupational needlestick injuries: applied research in the Liguria Region (Italy). J Prev Med Hyg, 57(2), 110-114. Tatelbaum. (2001). Needlestick safety and prevention act. Send to, 4(2), 193-195. Trim, J. C. (2004). Raising awareness and reducing the risk of needlestick injuries. Nursing Times. WHO. (n.d.). Occupational health. Retrieved April 13, 2018, from World Health Organisation: https://www.who.int/occupational_health/topics/hcworkers/en/ WILBURN, S. Q., EIJKEMANS, G. (2004). Preventing Needlestick Injuries among Healthcare Workers: A WHOICN Collaboration. INT J OCCUP ENVIRON HEALTH, 10, 451456. Willburn, S. (2004). Needlestick and Sharps Injury Prevention. The Online Journal of Issues in Nursing, 9(3)